вук

 ВУК

Насељавања различитих станишта.

Највећи вукови (живе у шумским подручјима Летоније, Белорусије, Аљаске и Канаде) досежу дужину тела (од врха њушке до почетка репа) до 160 cm, а реп је дугачак још до 52 cm. У раменима је висок око 80 cm а могу досећи тежину до 80 kg.
Најмањи вукови живе на Блиском истоку и на Арабијском полуострву. Дужина тела им је око 80 cm, тежина 20 kg а реп је дуг око 29 cm.

Женке су око 2 до 12% мање од мужјака и 20 до 25% лакше од њих.

До почетка развитка пољопривреде и сточарства вук је био најраспрострањенија звер на земљи. Био је распрострањен у цијелој Европи и Азији све до северне Арике као у северној Америци. У великим деловима тог некада дивовског подручја распрострањености, а нарочито у западној Европи и северној Америци, људи су га готово искоренили. У источној Европи, на Балкану, у Канади, Сибиру, Монголији и у мањој мери у Ирану још постоје веће међусобно повезане популације вукова. У осталим дијеловима ареала, вук се среће још само у малим, међусобно изолованим популацијама које обухватају и мање од 100 животиња.

Вукови живе у великом броју најразличитијих места. Захваљујући својој великој прилагодљивости, успевају да живе и у леденим подручјима Гренланда и Арктика, као и у пустињама Северне Америке и Централне Азије. Већина вукова настањује травната подручја и шуме. Данас је познат пре свега као шумска животиња, али то је последица чињенице да га је човек врло давно потиснуо с отворених подручја.

Иако се у дивљини може доћи до сусрета са усамљеном јединком вука, нормалан социјални живот вукова одвија се у чопору. Вучји чопор се у правилу састоји од родитељског пара и њихових потомака, дакле, реч је о породици. Прошлогодишњи младунци помажу родитељима у подизању млађе генерације. У нормалним околностима, у јесен се вучји чопор састоји од родитељског пара, њихових прошлогодишњих, као и младунаца из те године. Родитељи се зову алфа-пар и доминантнији су у односу на свој подмладак, па стога нема борби око доминације. Једино се млади вукови такмиче око позиције вукова. Они који не успеју да достигну овај ранг постају омега-вукови, на најнижем положају. При томе, мужјак је тај који одбија парење.

Раздобље скотности је око шездесет дана, а у једном леглу је у правилу између троје и седам (понекад се догоди и четрнаест) младунаца. Вукови у дивљини обично живе 8 до 9 година.

Основу вучје хране чине велики биљоједи, при томе лови ону врсту која је најчешћа у подручју на којем живи. На северним деловима територије на којем су распрострањени претежно лове у чопору собове, ирвасе, срне или неку другу дивљач из породице јелена. У њихову ловину у Источној Европи спадају и дивље свиње. Редовно лове и мале глодаре као што су зечеви, кунић, кртице, пацови и мишеви. У случају несташице дивљачи, вукови ће јести и стрвину и отпатке, као и лубенице, краставце и диње.

У крајевима са развијеним екстензивним сточарством хране се и стоком коју – ако није чувана – лакше лове него дивљач, наносећи тиме велике штете људима.

Витамине и неопходне елементе за развој организма вукови не добијају искључиво хранећи се биљоједима, него и сами једу биљну храну. У врло квалитетну храну за вукове убраја се разно бобичасто воће, као и листови неког биља и траве.

Огромна и неутољива прождрљивост вукова спада у подручје бајки и легенди. Према актуелним истраживањима, годишња потреба једног вука за храном креће се између 500 и 800 kg по појединцу. У просеку, вук једе око 2 kg дневно, али се при томе мора узети у обзир и дужа раздобља у којима вук не успева да улови ништа. Занимљиво је то да, вук може појести одједном и до 10 kg меса, али он је веома сналажљив и уместо да све то лепо свари, он део тог меса поврати и закопа га као залиху. Млади вукови често лове и једу инсекте.

Вукови су на злом гласу због навике да убију много више плена него што могу да поједу, када им се укаже повољна прилика.

Постоји општераширено веровање да вукови лове само старе и болесне животиње, одржавајући на тај начин опште здравље популације биљоједа. Нажалост, ово веровање није у потпуности тачно: кад је у питању јеленска дивљач, вукови често лове младе и здраве животиње (младе и скотне женке и младунчад), понекад намерно прескачући болесне и изгладнелеи тако знатно смањују прираштај јеленске дивљачи. У Јелоустону, за само десет година од поновног насељавања вукови су преполовили популацију вапити јелена.

У доба кад је вук у већем делу Европе био већ искорењен(19. век), живео је у Мађарској, Галицији, Хрватској, Словенији, Босни, Србији, Румунији, Пољској, Русији и Скандинавији.

У деловима света где још живи, вукове и данас активно прогоне. Међутим, јаче је сазнање да вук не представља опасност ни по човека, а ни по пољопривреду. Прихвата се да у оквиру заштите средине треба заштитити и вука као саставни део фауне.

CASPIAN SEAL

CASPIAN SEAL

The Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) is one of the smallest members of the earliest seal family and unique in that it is found exclusively in the brackish Caspian Sea. They are found not only along the shorelines, but also on the many rocky islands and floating blocks of ice that dot the Caspian Sea. In winter, and cooler parts of the spring and autumn season, these marine mammals populate the Northern Caspian. As the ice melts in the warmer season, they can be found on the mouths of the Volga and Ural Rivers, as well as the southern latitudes of the Caspian where cooler waters can be found due to greater depth.

Evidence suggests the seals are descended from Arctic ringed seals that reached the area from the north during an earlier part of the Quaternary period and became isolated in the landlocked Caspian Sea when continental ice sheets melted.

Adults are about 126–129 cm in length. Males are longer than females at an early age, but females experience more rapid growth until they reach ten years of age. Males can grow gradually until they reach an age of about 30 or 40 years.Adults weigh around 86 kg (190 lb); males are generally larger and bulkier. 

The skull structure of the Caspian seal suggests it is closely related to the Baikal seal. In addition, the morphological structures in both species suggest they are descended from the ringed seal which migrated from larger bodies of water around two million years ago.

Caspian seals are shallow divers, with diving depths typically reaching 50 m and lasting about a minute, although deeper and longer dives have been recorded, with at least one individual seen at depths in excess of 165 m. They are gregarious, spending most of their time in large colonies.

Caspian seals can be found not only along the shorelines, but also on the many rocky islands and floating blocks of ice that dot the Caspian Sea. As the ice melts in the warmer season, they can be found on the mouths of the Volga and Ural Rivers, as well as the southern latitudes of the Caspian where cooler waters can be found due to greater depth.


In winter, and cooler parts of the spring and autumn season, these marine mammals populate the Northern Caspian. In the first days of April, spring migration to the southern part of the Caspian Sea begins with mature female seals and their pups, during this migration hungry seals eat the fish in the nets. Male mature seals stay in the northern Caspian Sea longer and wait until the moulting is completed. In summer, seals find empty places in the western part of Apsheron for resting. In the eastern part, the most crowded place used to be the Ogurchinskiy Island, but by 2001, fewer than 10 pups were recorded on Ogurchinsky, some of which were killed by people on the island.

Caspian seals are primarily piscivorous. They eat a variety of food depending on season and availability. A typical diet for Caspian seals found in the northern Caspian sea consists of crustaceans and various fish species, such as Clupeonella engrauliformis, C. grimmi, C. delicate caspia, Gobiidae, Rutilus rutilus caspicus, Atherina mochon pontica, and Lucioperca lucioperca. Caspian seal adults eat about 2–3 kg of fish a day and almost a metric ton of fish per year.

In autumn and winter, Caspian seals prey mostly on sculpins, gobies, and crustaceans while inhabiting shallow waters in the northern part of the sea. During the summer, in the southern part of the Caspian Sea, they eat herring, roach, carp, sprat, and smelt. When Caspian seals live in estuaries, they eat large amounts of the freshwater species, Sander lucioperca. Other prey include shrimp, crab, and silversides.

Being one of the top predators in the ecosystem, Caspian seals had hazardous chemicals found inside their bodies such as heavy metals, organochlorine compounds, and radionuclides.

Caspian seals are shallow divers, typically diving 50 m for about one minute, although scientists have recorded Caspian seals diving deeper and for longer periods of time. After foraging during a dive, they rest at the surface of the water.

In the summer and winter, during mating season, Caspian seals tend to live in large groups. At other times of the year, these seals are solitary. During the summer, however, they make aggressive snorts or use flipper waving to tell other seals to keep their distance. Little else is known about their behavior.

Male and female Caspian seals are monogamous. Among breeding seals, a lack of fighting for a mates seems prevalent. In late autumn, Caspian seals travel to the northern part of the Caspian Sea where the water is shallow and frozen to give birth in secluded areas on ice sheets after a gestation period of 11 months. Normally, pregnancy rates are 40 to 70%, but are currently at an all-time low of 30%. In late January to early February, female seals give birth to one pup each. Similar to other ringed seals, these pups are born with white pelages and weigh about 5 kg. Their white coats are molted at around three weeks to a month.  Newborn pups are not fully grown until 8 to 10 years after they are born.Breeding begins a few weeks after the birth of last year’s pup around late February to mid March. Breeding usually occurs after weaning of a newborn pup, but can begin while the pup is still nursing. Caspian seals migrate back to the southern part of the Caspian Sea after the breeding season and molting in late April because the north begins to warm with constant ice melting. The southern region of the Caspian Sea has deep, colder waters where the seals spend the summer months.

Sea eagles are known to hunt these seals, which results in a high number of fatalities for the juveniles. They are also hunted by humans for subsistence and commerce. As of 2006, commercial icebreaker routes have passed through areas with high Caspian seal pup concentrations, which may contribute to loss of habitat.

In a three-week period in February 1978, wolves were responsible for the killing of numerous seals near Astrakhan. An estimated 17 to 40% of the seals in the area were killed, but not eaten.

Due to increased industrial production in the area, pollution has had an effect on the survival of the Caspian seal. From 1998 to 2000, the concentration of zinc and iron increased dramatically in the tissue of dead, diseased seals. This suggests these elements are causative agents in compromising the Caspian seal's immune system.

A century ago, their population was estimated at 1.5 million seals; in 2005, 104,000 remained, with an ongoing decline of 3-4% per year.

KAKA BIRD

KAKA BIRD

The New Zealand kaka, also known as kākā, (Nestor meridionalis) is a large species of parrot of the superfamily Strigopoidea found in native forests of New Zealand. Two subspecies are recognised. It is endangered and has disappeared from much of its former range.

The genus Nestor contains four species: the New Zealand kaka (Nestor meridionalis), the kea (N. notabilis), the extinct Norfolk kaka (N. productus), and the extinct Chatham kaka (N. sp.). All four are thought to stem from a "proto-kākā", dwelling in the forests of New Zealand five million years ago.Their closest relative is the kakapo (Strigops habroptila).Together, they form the parrot family Strigopidae, an ancient group that split off from all other Psittacidae before their radiation.

The New Zealand kaka is a medium-sized parrot, measuring 45 cm (18 in) in length and weighing from 390 to 560 g (14 to 20 oz), with an average of 452 g (0.996 lb). It is closely related to the kea, but has darker plumage and is more arboreal. The forehead and crown are greyish-white and the nape is greyish-brown. The neck and abdomen are more reddish, while the wings are more brownish. Both sub-species have a strongly patterned brown/green/grey plumage with orange and scarlet flashes under the wings; color variants which show red to yellow coloration especially on the breast are sometimes found.

This group of parrots is unusual, retaining more primitive features lost in most other parrots, because it split off from the rest around 100 million years ago.

The calls include a harsh ka-aa and a whistling u-wiia.

The New Zealand kaka lives in lowland and mid-altitude native forest. Its strongholds are currently the offshore reserves of Kapiti Island, Codfish Island and Little Barrier Island. It is breeding rapidly in the mainland island sanctuary at Zealandia (Karori Wildlife Sanctuary), with over 600 birds banded since their reintroduction in 2002.

Kaka are mainly arboreal and occupy mid-to-high canopy. Often seen flying across valleys or calling from the top of emergent trees. They are very gregarious and move in large flocks often containing kea where present.

The New Zealand kaka eats fruits, berries, seeds, flowers, buds, nectar, sap, plants and invertebrates. It uses its strong beak to shred the cones of the kauri tree to obtain the seeds. It has a brush tongue with which it feeds on nectar, and it uses its strong beak to dig out the grubs of the huhu beetle and to remove bark to feed on sap.

The New Zealand kaka is considered vulnerable (CITES II). It has greatly declined across its traditional range as a result of habitat loss; predation by introduced predators like rats, possums and stoats; and competition from wasps and bees for the honeydew excreted by scale insects. A closely related species, Nestor productus, the Norfolk kaka, became extinct in 1851 for similar reasons.

Predatory mammals are responsible for the loss of an estimated 26 million native birds and their eggs each year in New Zealand.

As cavity nesters with a long incubation period that requires the mother to stay on the nest for at least 90 days, kaka are particularly vulnerable to predation. Stoats were the main cause of death of nesting adult females, nestlings and fledglings, but possums were also important predators of adult females, eggs and nestlings.

In parts of the country, the Department of Conservation and local conservation groups have attempted to control predators of kaka through the use of traps, ground baiting and the aerial deployment of sodium fluoroacetate (1080). Where pest control has been carried out, there has been significant recovery of kaka populations.

TAPIR

TAPIR

A tapir  is a large, herbivorous mammal, similar in shape to a pig, with a short, prehensile snout. Tapirs inhabit jungle and forest regions of South America, Central America, and Southeastern Asia. The five extant species of tapirs are the Brazilian tapir, the Malayan tapir, the Baird's tapir, the kabomani tapir, and the mountain tapir. The four species that have been evaluated (the Brazilian, Malayan, Baird's and mountain tapir) are all classified as endangered or vulnerable. Their closest relatives are the other odd-toed ungulates, which include horses, donkeys, zebras and rhinoceri.

Size varies between types, but most tapirs are about 2 m (6.6 ft) long, stand about 1 m (3 ft) high at the shoulder, and weigh between 150 and 300 kg (330 and 700 lb). Their coats are short and range in color from reddish-brown, to grey, to nearly black, with the notable exceptions of the Malayan tapir, which has a white, saddle-shaped marking on its back, and the mountain tapir, which has longer, woolly fur. All tapirs have oval, white-tipped ears, rounded, protruding rumps with stubby tails, and splayed, hooved toes, with four toes on the front feet and three on the hind feet, which help them to walk on muddy and soft ground. Baby tapirs of all types have striped-and-spotted coats for camouflage.

 

The proboscis of the tapir is a highly flexible organ, able to move in all directions, allowing the animals to grab foliage that would otherwise be out of reach. Tapirs often exhibit the flehmen response, a posture in which they raise their snouts and show their teeth to detect scents. This response is frequently exhibited by bulls sniffing for signs of other males or females in oestrus in the area. The length of the proboscis varies among species; Malayan tapirs have the longest snouts and Brazilian tapirs have the shortest.The evolution of tapir probosces, made up almost entirely of soft tissues rather than bony internal structures, gives the Tapiridae skull a unique form in comparison to other perissodactyls, with a larger sagittal crest, orbits positioned more rostrally, a posteriorly telescoped cranium, and a more elongated and retracted nasoincisive incisure.

Under good conditions, a healthy female tapir can reproduce every two years; a single young, called a calf, is born after a gestation of about 13 months. The natural lifespan of a tapir is about 25 to 30 years, both in the wild and in zoos.Apart from mothers and their young offspring, tapirs lead almost exclusively solitary lives.

Although they frequently live in dryland forests, tapirs with access to rivers spend a good deal of time in and underwater, feeding on soft vegetation, taking refuge from predators, and cooling off during hot periods. Tapirs near a water source will swim, sink to the bottom, and walk along the riverbed to feed, and have been known to submerge themselves under water to allow small fish to pick parasites off their bulky bodies.Along with freshwater lounging, tapirs often wallow in mud pits, which also help to keep them cool and free of insects.

In the wild, the tapir's diet consists of fruit, berries, and leaves, particularly young, tender growth. Tapirs will spend many of their waking hours foraging along well-worn trails, snouts to the ground in search of food. Baird's tapirs have been observed to eat around 40 kg (85 lb) of vegetation in one day.

Adult tapirs are large enough to have few natural predators, and the thick skin on the backs of their necks helps to protect them from threats such as jaguars ,crocodiles,anacondas,and tigers. The creatures are also able to run fairly quickly, considering their size and cumbersome appearance, finding shelter in the thick undergrowth of the forest or in water. Hunting for meat and hides has substantially reduced their numbers and, more recently, habitat loss has resulted in the conservation watch-listing of all four species: both the Brazilian tapir and the Malayan tapir are classified as vulnerable; and the Baird's tapir and the mountain tapir are endangered.

A number of conservation projects have been started around the world. The Tapir Specialist Group, a unit of the IUCN Species Survival Commission, strives to conserve biological diversity by stimulating, developing, and executing practical programs to study, save, restore, and manage the four species of tapir and their remaining habitats in Central and South America and Southeast Asia.

The Baird's Tapir Project of Costa Rica is the longest ongoing tapir project in the world, having started in 1994. It involves placing radio collars on tapirs in Costa Rica's Corcovado National Park to study their social systems and habitat preferences.

SOUTHERN RIVER OTTER

SOUTHERN RIVER OTTER 

The southern river otter, Lontra provocax, is a species of otter  that lives in Chile and Argentina. Although called a "river otter", it inhabits both marine and freshwater environments. It sometimes is considered a subspecies of Lontra canadensis. The southern river otter is listed as endangered, due to illegal hunting, water pollution, and habitat loss.

This medium-sized otter's body can grow up to 2.5 ft (70 cm) long, with a tail adding about 16 in (40 cm). Body weight averages about 5-10 kg (11-22 lbs). Its fur is dark-brown on the top and has a lighter cinnamon color on its underside.

Although the female and her young will live in family groups, males are usually solitary. Litter sizes average one to two pups, but up to four can be born at a time. Their diets include fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and birds.

The southern river otter can be found in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats, but are mostly found in freshwater lakes and rivers having a significant amount of dense vegetation, especially along the shorelines, which must be present to use as cover. Their habitats also need the root systems of mature trees, as well as fallen tree debris.

Southern river otters were vigorously hunted for their pelts throughout the last 100 years. This is the major cause of their current low population numbers and endangered conservation status. Since then, they have not been able to recover due to a number of other threats. At this point, only seven known populations of this species are found throughout Chile and Argentina, and all of the populations are isolated from each other.

The riparian forests and rivers in which these otters are mostly found have been disturbed by human presence. Dam and road construction, as well as stream canalization and drainage for agriculture destroy many acres of what could be habitat for this species.Though Argentina began passing legislation in 1960 to outlaw the hunting of the southern river otter, hunting still does occur because of the lack of enforcement. Hunting is legal and does occur in Chile.

The continual decrease in prey numbers also causes problems for the southern river otter. Some invasive aquatic species that have been introduced into that area are limiting the mollusks and fish available for otter prey. This causes the otters to move to other freshwater systems to hunt for food.

Several surveys and studies have been performed on the southern river otter to better understand its declining population numbers to be able to prevent the species from becoming extinct. Several of the known populations are found within national forests.

Future directions for conserving this species include obtaining better information on the southern river otter’s population numbers and locations. If conservationists know where the individuals and families live, enforcement of antipoaching laws, as well as focusing on maintaining and protecting their habitats, will be easier. Captive breeding programs would also be beneficial for this species, to later reintroduce individuals into the areas where they were previously found.

GRIFFON VULTURE

GRIFFON VULTURE

 

The griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) is a large Old World vulture   in the bird of preyfamily Accipitridae. It is also known as the Eurasian griffon.

 

The griffon vulture is 93–122 cm (37–48 in) long with a 2.3–2.8 m (7.5–9.2 ft) wingspan. In the nominate race the males weigh 6.2 to 10.5 kg (14 to 23 lb) and females typically weigh 6.5 to 11.3 kg (14 to 25 lb), while in the Indian subspecies (G. f. fulvescens), the vultures average 7.1 kg (16 lb). Extreme adult weights have been reported from 4.5 to 15 kg (9.9 to 33.1 lb), the latter likely a weight attained in captivity.Hatched naked, it is a typical Old World vulture in appearance, with a very white head, very broad wings and short tail feathers. It has a white neck ruff and yellow bill. The buff body and wing coverts contrast with the dark flight feathers.

 

Like other vultures, it is a scavenger, feeding mostly from carcasses of dead animals which it finds by soaring over open areas, often moving in flocks. It establishes nesting colonies in cliffs that are undisturbed by humans while coverage of open areas and availability of dead animals within dozens of kilometres of these cliffs is high. It grunts and hisses at roosts or when feeding on carrion.

The maximum recorded lifespan of the griffon vulture is 41.4 years for an individual in captivity.

It breeds on crags in mountains in southern Europe, north Africa, and Asia, laying one egg. Griffon vultures may form loose colonies. The population is mostly resident. Juveniles and immature individuals may migrate far or embark on long-distance movements.

 

In respect to varying age ranges, the Griffon vultures evidently show no difference in feeding rates. Inevitably, as resource availability increases, feeding rates tend to follow the same pattern. Upon studying the reintroduction of this species and its impact on the intraspecific competition, old adults are more inclined to display aggressive behavior and signs of dominance in comparison to the other age ranges. In terms of comparing the male and female sexes, there are no observed differences in competitive behaviors. Lastly, the reintroduced individuals of the species and the wild-bred do not differ in dominance or feeding rate despite the differences in upbringing.

 

The main source for the rapid decline in the Gyps fulvus population comes from poisonous bait set out, which is consumed by the vultures. The bait is lethal to their health but is very difficult to manage. Efforts from wildlife conservation attempt to spread awareness of these lethal and outlawed poisons by educating schools and the government about the issue.

 

In Italy, the species survived only in Sardinia, but was reintroduced in a few other areas of the peninsula. As a result, several specimens have been spotted again in August 2006 on the Gran Sasso massif (central Italy).

In Croatia, a colony of griffon vultures can be found near the town of Beli on the island of Cres. There they breed at lower elevations, with some nests just 10 m (33 ft) above sea level. Therefore, contact with people is common. The population makes frequent incursions in the Slovenian territory, especially in the mountain Stol above Kobarid.

 

In the United Kingdom, Griffon vultures were made extinct at some point before the 1600s. Occasional vagrants appear in the UK, and in 2000 a vulture took up residence on the Channel Island of Guernsey.

In Cyprus, there is a colony at Episkopi, in the south of the island.

Colonies of griffon vultures can be found in northern Israel and in the Golan Heights, where a large colony breeds in the Carmel Mountains, the Negev desert and especially at Gamla, where reintroduction projects are being carried out at breeding centers in the Carmel and Negev.

 

In Greece, there are nearly 1000 birds. On Crete they can be found in most mountainous areas, sometimes in groups of up to 20.

Griffon vultures have been reintroduced successfully into the Massif Central in France; about 500 are now found there. Griffon vultures are regularly spotted over the Millau bridge.

In Belgium and the Netherlands, around 100 birds were present in the summer of 2007. These were vagrants from the Pyrenees population (see below).

 

In Germany, the species died out in the mid-18th century. Some 200 vagrant birds, probably from the Pyrenees, were sighted in 2006,and several dozen of the vagrants sighted in Belgium the following year crossed into Germany in search for food.There are plans to reintroduce the species in the Alps. In September 2008, pieces of a griffon vulture bone, about 35,000 years old, were excavated from Hohle Fels cave in southern Germany, which are believed to form a flute.

In Serbia, there are around 60–65 pairs of griffon vultures in the western parts of the country, around Zlatar mountain and also 35 birds in the canyon of the Trešnjica river. They are under legal protection from hunting.

 

In Switzerland, there is a population of several dozen birds.

In Austria, there is a remnant population around Salzburg Zoo, and vagrants from the Balkans are often seen.

In Spain, there are tens of thousands of birds, from a low of a few thousand around 1980.

The Pyrenees population has apparently been affected by an EC ruling that due to danger of BSE transmission, no carcasses must be left on the fields for the time being. This has critically lowered food availability, and consequently, carrying capacity. Although the griffon vulture does not normally attack larger living prey, there are reports of Spanish griffon vultures killing weak, young or unhealthy living animals as they do not find enough carrion to eat. In May 2013, a 52-year-old woman who was hiking in the Pyrenees and had fallen off a cliff to her death was eaten by griffon vultures before rescue workers were able to recover her body, leaving only her clothes and a few of her bones. Due to her being the first human to be documented being eaten by griffon vultures, the story brought worldwide attention to the griffon vulture problems in Southern Europe.